THE ECLECTIC Review was a British periodical published monthly during the first half of the 19th century aimed at highly literate readers of all classes. Published between 1805 and 1868, it reviewed books in many fields, including literature, history, theology, politics, science, art, and philosophy. The Eclectic paid special attention to literature, reviewing major new Romantic writers such as William Wordsworth and Lord Byron as well as emerging Victorian novelists such as Charles Dickens. Unlike their fellow publications, however, they also paid attention to American literature, seriously reviewing the works of writers such as Washington Irving. Although the Eclectic was founded by Dissenters, it adhered to a strict code of non-denominationalism; however, its religious background may have contributed to its serious intellectual tone. Initially modeled on 18th-century periodicals, the Eclectic adapted early to the competitive periodical market of the early 19th century, changing its style to include longer, more evaluative reviews. It remained a generally successful periodical for most of its run. The editing history of the Eclectic can be divided into four periods: the first is dominated by co-founder Daniel Parken, who helped establish the popularity of the periodical; after Parken's death, Josiah Conder, after purchasing the periodical, edited it from 1813 until 1836, during years of financial hardship; from 1837 to 1855, Thomas Price edited the periodical, returning it to its popularity and success; in its final years, several people served as managing editor and the Eclectic had some of its best years. Although few of the contributors of the Eclectic remain famous today, such as the poet James Montgomery, many of them were well-known academics or reformers of the time, such as the abolitionist George Thompson and the theological scholar Adam Clarke. The Eclectic reviewed more American literature than any other English periodical of the time. However, English authors were still given far more attention than American, and William Wordsworth was the most reviewed of all.
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PERIODICALS AND MAGAZINES IN THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE π΄PART 4
π΄ PERIODICALS AND MAGAZINES IN THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE π΄PART 3 2️⃣1️⃣
PERIODICALS AND MAGAZINES IN THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE -?PART 3
π΄ PERIODICALS AND MAGAZINES IN THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE π΄PART 3
1️⃣5️⃣ BLACKWOOD'S MAGAZINE or 'the Maga', was an innovating monthly periodical begun by W.
*Blackwood as a Tory rival to the Whiggish *Edinburgh
Review. It began in Apr il 1817 as the Edinburgh Monthly
Magazine and in October that year continued as
Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine until Dec. 1905;
from Jan. 1906 onwards it became Blackwood's Magazine.
Although its politics were the same as those of the
*Quarterly Review, it was intended to be sharper,
brighter, and less ponderous. The first editors were
shortly replaced by *Lockhart, John *Wilson, and J.
*Hogg, who gave the 'Maga' its forceful partisan tone.
Its notoriety was early established with the publication
in 1817 of the so-called *'Chaldee MS', in which many
leading Edinburgh figures were pilloried; and with the
beginning, also in 1817, of the long series of attacks on the *'Cockney School of Poetry', directed chiefly against Leigh *Hunt, *Keats, and *Hazlitt. Blackwood had to pay damages more than once, notably to Hazlitt, for the venom of his writers' pens, and John *Murray gave up the London agency for the magazine in protest. Blackwood's did however give considerable support to *Wordsworth, *Shelley, *De Quincey, *Mackenzie, *Galt, Sir W. *Scott, and others, and did much to foster an interest in German literature. Unlike the Edinburgh and the Quarterly it published short stories and serialized novels. The *Noctes Ambrosianae, though of ephemeral interest, was a highly popular series of sketches. Soon after 1830 the magazine became a purely literary review, and continued through the 19th cent, as a prosperous and respected
literary miscellany, publishing *Conrad, *Noyes, *Lang, and many others. It continued, in a diminished form, until 1980.
1️⃣6️⃣ COSMOPOLIS An International Monthly Review was a multi-lingual literary magazine published between January 1896 and November 1898. The lead edition of Cosmopolis was published in London, but local editions of the magazine were also published in Berlin, Paris, and Saint Petersburg.
Each edition of Cosmopolis contained non-fiction articles, literary reviews, and new fiction in English, French, and German; later editions also contained material in Russian. Cosmopolis was edited by Fernand Ortmans and was published in London by T. Fisher Unwin. It had a circulation of approximately 20,000.
1️⃣7️⃣ THE CRITIC The Critic was a magazine founded in London by John Crockford and Edward William Cox. Its full title was The Critic of Literature, Science, and the Drama, and it was edited by James Lowe during its existence from 1843 to 1863. It was started as a book review section of Law Times, which reviewed the world of journals. The magazine was started as a separate publication in November 1843. In turn it gave rise to The Clerical Journal, in 1853. In 1851/2 it featured a substantial series of articles by Francis Espinasse, as "Herodotus Smith", on the quarterly journals. The magazine ended publication at the end of 1863.
PERIODICALS AND MAGAZINES IN THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE - Part 2
π΄ PERIODICALS AND MAGAZINES IN THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE π΄ PART 2
1️⃣1️⃣ THE MONTHLY MIRROR was an English literary periodical, published from 1795 to 1811, founded by Thomas Bellamy, and later jointly owned by Thomas Hill and John Litchfield. It was published by Vernor & Hood from the second half of 1798. The Mirror concentrated on theatre, in London and the provinces. The first editor for Hill was Edward Du Bois. From 1812 it was merged into the Theatrical Inquisitor.
1️⃣2️⃣ THE WATCHMAN was a short-lived periodical established and edited by Samuel Taylor Coleridge in 1796. The first number was promised for 5 February 1796 but actually appeared on 1 March. Published by Coleridge himself, it was printed at Bristol by Nathaniel Biggs, and appeared every eight days to avoid tax. Publication ceased with the tenth number (published 13 May 1796). The publication contained essays, poems, news stories, reports on Parliamentary debates, and book reviews.
The volumes all contain explicitly political material such as the ‘Introductory Essay’, (a history of ‘the diffusion of truth’); the ‘Essay on Fasts’, (attacking the alliance of church and state power); two anti-Godwinian items, ‘Modern Patriotism’ and ‘To Gaius Gracchus’; ‘To the Editor of the Watchman’ (reporting the trials of friends of freedom John Gale Jones and John Binns); and an extract from Coleridge’s lecture ‘On the Slave Trade’.
1️⃣3️⃣ THE ACADEMY a periodical founded in 1869 as 'a monthly
record of literature, learning, science, and art' by a
young Oxford don, Charles Edward Cutts Birch
Appleton (1841-79), who edited it until his death,
converting it in 1871 into a fortnightly and in 1874 into
a weekly review. It included M. * Arnold, T. H. *Huxley,
M. *Pattison, and the classical scholar John Conington
(1825-69) among its early contributors. In 1896 it came
under the control of Pearl Craigie ('J. O. *Hobbes'); she
employed as editor C. Lewis Hind, who gave it a more
popular colouring. After various vicissitudes and
changes of title the Academy disappeared in the 1920s. Against the prevailing custom of anonymous authorship, The Academy provided the full names of its writers. In its early years, the reviewers included Edmund Gosse, George Saintsbury, and Henry Sidgwick. As a general rule, The Academy did not publish signed reviews. The Academy moved from a Liberal to a Conservative position under Lord Alfred Douglas, who was aided by T.W.H. Crosland. "Douglas and Crosland between them succeed in making The Academy the most candid, most readable, and most admirable literary paper in the United Kingdom". The magazine closed in 1915. Crosland briefly revived the title as a monthly in 1916 with himself as editor and sole contributor.
1️⃣4️⃣ BENTLEY'S MAGAZINE as an English literary magazine started by Richard Bentley. It was published between 1836 and 1868. Already a successful publisher of novels, Bentley began the journal in 1836 and invited Charles Dickens to be its first editor. Dickens serialised his second novel Oliver Twist, but soon fell out with Bentley over editorial control, calling him a "Burlington Street Brigand". He quit as editor in 1839 and William Harrison Ainsworth took over. Ainsworth would also only stay in the job for three years, but bought the magazine from Bentley a decade later. In 1868 Ainsworth sold the magazine back to Bentley, who merged it with the Temple Bar Magazine.
Aside from the works of Dickens and Ainsworth other significant authors published in the magazine included: Wilkie Collins, Catharine Sedgwick, Richard Brinsley Peake, Thomas Moore, Thomas Love Peacock, William Mudford, Mrs Henry Wood, Charles Robert Forrester (sometimes under the pseudonym Hal Willis), Frances Minto Elliot, Isabella Frances Romer, The Ingoldsby Legends and some of Edgar Allan Poe's short stories. It published drawings by the caricaturist George Cruikshank, and was the first publication to publish cartoons by John Leech, who became a prominent Punch cartoonist.
PERIODICALS AND MAGAZINES IN THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE
π΄ PERIODICALS AND MAGAZINES IN THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE π΄ part 1
1️⃣TATLER, a periodical founded by R. *Steele, of which the
first issue appeared on 12 Apr. 1709; it appeared thrice
weekly until 2 Jan. 1711.
According to No. 1, it was to include 'Accounts of
Gallantry, Pleasure and Entertainment . . . under the
Article of White's Chocolate House'; poetry under that
of Will's Coffee House; foreign and domestic news
from St James's Coffee-house; learning from the
Grecian; and so on. Gradually it adopted a loftier
tone; the evils of duelling and gambling are denounced
in some of the earlier numbers, and presently all
questions of good manners are discussed from the
standpoint of a more humane civilization, and a new
standard of taste is established. The ideal of a gentleman
is examined, and its essence is found to lie in
forbearance. The author assumes the character of
Swift's *Bickerstaff, the marriage of whose sister,
Jenny Distaff, with Tranquillus gives occasion for
treating of happy married life. The rake and the
coquette are exposed, and virtue is held up to admiration
in the person of Lady Elizabeth Hastings (1682-
1739), somewhat inappropriately named Aspasia—'to
love her is a liberal education.' Anecdotes, essays, and
short stories illustrate the principles advanced. From an early stage in the history of the Tatler Steele
had the collaboration of * Addison, who contributed
notes, suggestions, and a number of complete papers.
It was succeeded by the * Spectator, which they edited
jointly. There is a scholarly edition ed. Donald F. Bond
(3 vols, 1987).
2️⃣SPECTATOR (1) a periodical conducted by *Steele and
* Addison, from 1 Mar. 1711 to 6 Dec. 1712. It was
revived by Addison in 1714, when 80 numbers (556-
635) were issued, but the first series has been generally
considered superior, except by *Macaulay, who found
the last volume to contain 'perhaps the finest Essays,
both serious and playful, in the English language'
(*Edinburgh Review, July 1843). ^ appeared daily, and
was immensely popular, particularly with the new
growing middle-class readership. Addison and Steele
were the principal contributors, in about equal proportions;
other contributors included *Pope, *Tickell,
*Budgell, A. *Philips, *Eusden, and Lady M. W.
*Montagu.
It purported to be conducted (see the first two
numbers) by a small club, including Sir Roger de
*Coverley, who represents the country gentry, Sir
Andrew Freeport, Captain Sentry, and Will Honeycomb,
representing respectively commerce, the army,
and the town. Mr Spectator himself, who writes the
papers, is a man of travel and learning, who frequents
London as an observer, but keeps clear of political
strife. The papers are mainly concerned with manners,
morals, and literature. Their object is 'to enliven
morality with wit, and to temper wit with morality',
and succeeding generations of readers endorsed *E.
Young's view that the periodical (which succeeded the
*Tatler) provided 'a wholesome and pleasant regimen';
both its style and its morals were considered exemplary
by Dr *Johnson, H. *Blair, and other arbiters.
There is a five-volume edition by Donald F. Bond,
published 1965.
(2) A weekly periodical started in 1828 by Robert
Stephen Rintoul, with funds provided by Joseph Hume
and others, as an organ of 'educated radicalism'. It
supported Lord John Russell's * Reform Bill of 1831
with a demand for 'the Bill, the whole Bill, and nothing
but the Bill'. R. H. *Hutton was joint editor, 1861-97.
John St Loe Strachey (1860-1927) was editor and
proprietor from 1898 to 1925, and his cousin Lytton
* Strachey was a frequent contributor. Other notable
contributors in later years include P. *Fleming, G. *Greene, E. *Waugh, P. *Quennell, K. *Amis, Clive
James, Bernard Levin, Peregrine Worsthorne, Katharine
Whitehorn, and Auberon *Waugh: a lively new
wave of younger writers is represented by Simon
Heffer, Andrew Roberts, and Boris Johnson (editor,
!999).
The Waste Land by T.S Eliot
The Waste Land by T.S Eliot
The Damaged Psyche of Humanity
Like many modernist writers, Eliot wanted his poetry to express the fragile psychological state of humanity in the twentieth century. The passing of Victorian ideals and the trauma of World War I challenged cultural notions of masculine identity, causing artists to question the romantic literary ideal of a visionary-poet capable of changing the world through verse. Modernist writers wanted to capture their transformed world, which they perceived as fractured, alienated, and denigrated. Europe lost an entire generation of young men to the horrors of the so-called Great War, causing a general crisis of masculinity as survivors struggled to find their place in a radically altered society. As for England, the aftershocks of World War I directly contributed to the dissolution of the British Empire. Eliot saw society as paralyzed and wounded, and he imagined that culture was crumbling and dissolving. “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” (1917) demonstrates this sense of indecisive paralysis as the titular Speaker wonders whether he should eat a piece of fruit, make a radical change, or if he has the fortitude to keep living. Humanity’s collectively damaged psyche prevented people from communicating with one another, an idea that Eliot explored in many works, including “A Game of Chess” (the second part of The Waste Land) and “The Hollow Men.”
The Power of Literary History
Eliot maintained great reverence for myth and the Western literary Canon, and he packed his work full of Allusions, quotations, footnotes, and scholarly Exegeses. In “The Tradition and the Individual Talent,” an essay first published in 1919, Eliot praises the literary tradition and states that the best writers are those who write with a sense of continuity with those writers who came before, as if all of literature constituted a stream in which each new writer must enter and swim. Only the very best new work will subtly shift the stream’s current and thus improve the literary tradition. Eliot also argued that the literary past must be integrated into contemporary poetry. But the poet must guard against excessive academic knowledge and distill only the most essential bits of the past into a poem, thereby enlightening readers. The Waste Land juxtaposes fragments of various elements of literary and mythic traditions with scenes and sounds from modern life. The effect of this poetic collage is both a reinterpretation of canonical texts and a historical context for his examination of society and humanity.
The Changing Nature of Gender Roles
Over the course of Eliot’s life, gender roles and sexuality became increasingly flexible, and Eliot reflected those changes in his work. In the repressive Victorian Era of the nineteenth century, women were confined to the domestic sphere, sexuality was not discussed or publicly explored, and a puritanical atmosphere dictated most social interactions. Queen Victoria’s death in 1901 helped usher in a new era of excess and forthrightness, now called the Edwardian Age, which lasted until 1910. World War I, from 1914 to 1918, further transformed society, as people felt both increasingly alienated from one another and empowered to break social mores. English women began agitating in earnest for the right to vote in 1918, and the flappers of the Jazz Age began smoking and drinking alcohol in public. Women were allowed to attend school, and women who could afford it continued their education at those universities that began accepting women in the early twentieth century. Modernist writers created gay and lesbian characters and re-imagined masculinity and femininity as characteristics people could assume or shrug off rather than as absolute identities dictated by society.
Eliot simultaneously lauded the end of the Victorian era and expressed concern about the freedoms inherent in the modern age. “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” reflects the feelings of emasculation experienced by many men as they returned home from World War I to find women empowered by their new role as wage earners. Prufrock, unable to make a decision, watches women wander in and out of a room, “talking of Michelangelo” (14), and elsewhere admires their downy, bare arms. A disdain for unchecked sexuality appears in both “Sweeney Among the Nightingales” (1918) and The Waste Land. The latter portrays rape, prostitution, a conversation about abortion, and other incidences of nonreproductive sexuality. Nevertheless, the poem’s central character, Tiresias, is a hermaphrodite—and his powers of prophesy and transformation are, in some sense, due to his male and female genitalia. With Tiresias, Eliot creates a character that embodies wholeness, represented by the two genders coming together in one body.
#sahityaclasses #ugcnet #UGCNET #tseliot #wasteland #netenglish
general summary of Research ethical principles
Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research. In addition, it educates and monitors scientists conducting research to ensure a high ethical standard. The following is a general summary of some ethical principles:
✳️Honesty:
Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.
✳️Objectivity:
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research.
✳️Integrity:
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action.
✳️Carefulness:
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities.
✳️Openness:
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
✳️Respect for Intellectual Property:
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Never plagiarize.
✳️Confidentiality:
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
✳️Responsible Publication:
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
✳️Responsible Mentoring:
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.
✳️Respect for Colleagues:
Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
✳️Social Responsibility:
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education, and advocacy.
✳️Non-Discrimination:
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.
✳️Competence:
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.
✳️Legality:
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
✳️Animal Care:
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
✳️Human Subjects Protection:
When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy.
POET LAUREATE OF USA:
POET LAUREATE OF USA:
The position of poet laureate of the United States is somewhat different from that of Britain, where the title was first established in the 17th century. Whereas the British office renders the laureate a salaried member of the British royal household, the American poet laureate acts as the chair of poetry for the Library of Congress. The position was established in 1936 by an endowment from the author Archer M. Huntington, and the title of poet laureate was created in 1985. Although the British poet laureate is now free of specific poetic duties, the American poet laureate, who is appointed annually, is expected to present one major poetic work and to appear at certain national ceremonies. This list orders the laureates chronologically, from the first to the most recent.
Joseph Auslander
Allen Tate
Robert Penn Warren
Louise Bogan
Karl Shapiro
Robert Lowell, Jr.
LΓ©onie Adams
Elizabeth Bishop
Conrad Aiken
William Carlos Williams
Randall Jarrell
Robert Frost
Richard Eberhart
Louis Untermeyer
Howard Nemerov
Reed Whittemore
Stephen Spender
James Dickey
William Jay Smith
William Stafford
Josephine Jacobsen
Daniel Hoffman
Stanley Kunitz
Robert Hayden
William Meredith
Maxine Kumin
Anthony Hecht
Robert Fitzgerald
Reed Whittemore
Gwendolyn Brooks
Robert Penn Warren
Richard Wilbur
Howard Nemerov
Mark Strand
Joseph Brodsky
Mona Van Duyn
Rita Dove
Robert Hass
Robert Pinsky
Stanley Kunitz
Billy Collins
Louise GlΓΌck
Ted Kooser
Donald Hall
Charles Simic
Kay Ryan
W.S. Merwin
Philip Levine
Natasha Trethewey
Charles Wright
Juan Felipe Herrera
Tracy K. Smith
QUESTIONS ON ENGLISH LITERATURE
QUESTIONS ON ENGLISH LITERATURE: MEDIUM LEVEL
π In Pinter's Birthday Party, Stanley is given a birthday present. What is it?
Ans. A drum
π How does Lord Jim end?
Ans. Jim is shot through chest by Doramin.
π "Where I lacked a political purpose, I wrote lifeless books.” To which author can we attribute the above admission?
Ans. George Orwell.
π Modernism has been described as being concerned with “disenchantment of our culture with culture itself” Who is the critic?
Ans. Lionel Trilling.
π “Only that film, which fluttered on the grate, still flutters there, the sole unquiet thing.” The above lines are quoted from:
Ans. Frost at Midnight”
π Which one of the following modern poems employ ottava rima?
Ans. Among School Children.
π John Dryden in his heroic tragedy All for Love takes the story of Shakespeare's:
Ans. Antony and Cleopatra.
π Samuel Pepys kept his diary from:
Ans. 1660 to 1669.
π In the Defence of Poetry, what did Sydney attribute to poetry?
Ans. A moral power whereby poetry encourages the reader to evaluate virtuous models.
π An Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot presents portrait which contemporary figures:
Ans. Addison and Lord Hervey.
π Name two plays by Shakespeare which uses ‘cross-dressing’ as a device?
Ans. As You Like It and Cymbeline.
π Name two works which can be categorised under postcolonial theory?
Ans. Nation and Narration and Orientalism and White Mythologies.
π Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding is a classic statement of which Philosophy?
Ans. Empiricist.
π Power circulates in all directions, to and from all social levels, at all times.” Who said this?
Ans. Michel Foucault.
π In the late 17th century, A Battle of Books erupted between which two groups?
Ans. Champions of Ancient and Modern Learning.
π Everything that man esteems Endures a moment or a day Love's pleasure drives his love away…” In the above quote, the last line is an example of:
Ans. Paradox.
π The phrase “dark satanic mills” has become the most famous description of the force at the centre of the industrial revolution. The phrase was used by:
Ans. William Blake.
π "Five miles meandering with a mazy motion through wood and dale, the scared river ran.” Where does this ‘sacred river’ directly run to?
Ans. The caverns measureless
π Who is the 20th century poet, a winner of the Nobel Prize for literature who rejected the label “British” though he has always written in English rather than his regional language?
Ans. Seamus Heaney.
π Sir. Thomas Browne's Religion Medici emphasizes on:
Ans. It emphasizes Browne's love of mystery and wonder.
π Which one of the following best describes the general feeling expressed in literature during the last decade of the Victorian era?
Ans. Studied melancholy and aestheticism.
π Which poem by Shelley bears the alternative title, “The Spirit of Solitude”?
Ans. Alastor.
π Which tale in The Canterbury Tales uses tradition of the Beast Fable?
Ans. The Nun's Priest's Tale
π At the end of Sons and Lovers, Paul Morel:
Ans. Sets off in quest of life away from his mother.
π When you say “I love her eyes, her hair, her nose, her cheeks, her lips,” you are using a rhetorical device of:
Ans. Enumeration
π Evelyn Waugh's Trilogy published together as Sword of Honour is about:
Ans. The English at War
π Who coined the phrase “The Two Nations” to describe the disparity in Britain between the rich and the poor?
Ans. Benjamin Disraeli
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Posthumanism Theory
π―Posthumanism Theory
In as brief a definition as possible, humanism is centered on the idea that human needs, values, concerns, and ideals are of the highest importance, or that the human being is the epitome of being.
π―As a development of this idea, posthumanism is based on the notion that humankind can transcend the limitations of the physical human form. In a traditional sense, humans have been considered to be solidly and indisputably classified as high-functioning animals, but animals nonetheless. In this way, the same biological and physical constraints that limit the entire animal kingdom tether humankind to that base level.
π―Posthumanism Theory suggests it is both possible and for the best for humans to attempt to surpass these limitations, often through the use of technology to augment biology (in a way, using the physiological capacity of the human brain to accelerate the functions of the entire human form). This progressive mentality is an important aspect of the human condition to consider in the course of modern document design and technical rhetoric. Operating under posthumanism ideals requires authors and creators to venture into the hypothetical and the unexplored because these are the areas that build upon and even improve what we already have established. Posthumanism holds this sentiment at heart—the idea that we, as humans, have no inherent barrier to making our physical and mental functionality much more efficient and powerful than it currently is.
π―To apply these ideals to writing and rhetoric, there is the potential to incorporate the conventions of posthumanism both integrally and progressively. Integrally, a posthuman text should reflect the central ideas of posthumanism: what can authors do to make their texts transcend the perceived limitations of text and writing? How can documents be made to do more than what they currently can do, and how can their readability, usability, and accessibility be expanded? Progressively, a posthuman text should relatably adapt for evolutions in interaction: it might explore such questions as how will human interaction with documents change in the next 10, 20, 50, or 100 years? How can texts encourage mental expansion? What changes in technology can be predicted and accounted for in the delivery and interaction with documents and writing?
Progressions in Usability and Functionality
While the primary focus of posthumanist progression lies in the realm of higher technology, there are developments both in effect and yet to come that have much to do with technical writing and rhetoric.
π―For many, many centuries, writing has been constrained to paper with static text. In more recent decades, the advent of computers and the Internet have caused documents to evolve and adapt. Institution of newer technologies allows for new methods of interactivity, which allow different senses to be utilized by human beings who interact with such documents. Through the use of technology, document designers and writers can allow their readers to interact at a more functional level which is more natural and fully engaging than mere reading. The qualities of new media enable documents and their interactive elements to tap into the human mind to a higher degree. In that way, technology is being utilized to better the human experience and tap into the full range of human capability.
π―New developments in technology such as mobile phones, touch screens, e-readers, and other similar technology afford better interactivity and have evolved the way humans interact with their professional and social worlds. Technology is always changing to accommodate more natural, intuitive means of interactivity—but the most posthuman aspect of this technological innovation creep is the ubiquity of technology that allows delivery of writing and documents. Technology has filled in an accessibility gap that now grants access to documents and writing not only on printed paper, but on desktop computers, laptop computers, smartphones, and other such devices. This technology augments human beings'
Fun facts about the Elizabethan poet - Edmund Spenser
Fun facts about the Elizabethan poet - Edmund Spenser
1. The word ‘blatant’ was invented in Spenser’s epic poem The Faerie Queene. Spenser coined the word ‘blatant’ when he came up with the fictional many-tongued creature, the Blatant beast, in his epic poem. The Faerie Queene is a vast allegorical work of fantasy which mythologises England (using native myths, such as St George, alongside a sort of Chaucerian English) as a great Christian nation, ruled over by ‘Gloriana’ (i.e. Queen Elizabeth I). In the second book of his poem, Spenser mentions the ‘Blatant beast’, a thousand-tongued creature which is the offspring of Cerberus and ChimΓ¦ra. (The Blatant beast actually has a hundred tongues when it first appears in the second book; when it reappears in the sixth book, though, it’s grown another nine hundred.) In time, this vast, babbling animal became the common adjective we use today to refer to something obvious and obtrusive – as, one suspects, a large beast with lots of tongues would be in any room.
2. Despite running to over 1,000 pages, The Faerie Queene was left unfinished. Spenser died suddenly in 1599, and left his great work only partially completed – he’s written only six of the projected twelve books, so he never got round to writing the entire second half of the poem. The Faerie Queene introduces the stanza form Spenser himself invented, and which is named after him: the Spenserian stanza comprises nine lines of rhymed iambic pentameter, though with the final line having an extra foot (this twelve-syllable line is known as an alexandrine).
3. According to one theory, the phrase ‘going for a song’ originated in a reference to Spenser’s most famous poem. The story, recounted by Thomas Fuller in his Worthies of England (1662), goes that Queen Elizabeth I was so pleased with The Faerie Queene that she commanded that Spenser be paid £100 for his trouble. The Lord High Treasurer, Lord Burghley, upon hearing that such a huge sum was going to be given for a mere poem, exclaimed, ‘What? All this for a song?’ The meaning of the phrase became distorted (indeed, inverted) until it came to refer to something valuable that was going cheap – though this theory remains speculative.
4. Many of his other works are lost. As well as writing his epic, The Faerie Queene (or writing half of it anyway), The Shepheardes Calendar, the Prothalamium and Epithalamium (poems celebrating a marriage), and his sonnet sequence Amoretti, Edmund Spenser wrote a number of other poems and prose works, many of which are now lost. These include The English Poet, which is thought to have been a prose work about poetic technique and prosody, and a translation of the Book of Ecclestiastes.
5. It’s rumoured that many leading poets of the day attended Spenser’s funeral in 1599 – including, perhaps, Shakespeare. Spenser was buried in Westminster Abbey alongside his literary hero, Geoffrey Chaucer, in the area of the church that was to become known as ‘Poets’ Corner’. According to the historian William Camden, the poets in attendance all threw elegies into the grave. If this story is true then the poet who had strewn poems upon others in life was, in death, literally covered with verses. It’s a nice thought.
Expected Questions Series
Expected Questions Series
The New Humanism school of philosophy and literary criticism was popular in America during: 1910-1930
What does “I” stand for in “To Carthage then I came”: St. Augustine (Eliot’s The Waste Land)
Estella is the daughter of? Joe Gargery, who also is guardian of Pips
Who coined the phrase “egotistical sublime”? Coleridge
The novel The Power And The Glory is set in? Mexico
The sub-title of Twelfth Night: What You Will
The line “The kelson of creation is love” occurs in Walt Whitman’s: Song of Myself
Who wrote the poem “The Defence of Lucknow?” Tennyson
A verse form using stanza of eight lines, each with eleven syllables, is known as? Ottavarima
The tale of two cities has: a romantic hero with a weakness
The character in The Tempest is referred to as an honest old counsellor: Ginzolo
July’s People (1981) is a novel by : Nadine Gordimer
Gudrun Bragwen is a character in a novel by : DH Lawrence (Women in Love)
Who is given the credit of using the term “romantic”: Freidrich Schlegal
“The Figure a Poem Makes” is an essay by Robert Frost
“Ripeness is all” occurs in: King Lear (Shakespeare)
A Dance of The Forest (1960) is written by: Wole Soyinka (at Nigeria’s independence)
The work by Swinburne which begins when the hounds of spring are on winters traces? Atalanta In Calydon
Sartor Resartus (1836) is a novel by: Thomas Carlyle
The character who is a supporter of women’s rights in Sons And Lovers? Mrs. Morel
In Sons And Lovers, Paul Morel’s mothers name is? Gertrude
The twins in Lord Of The Flies are? Sam and Eric (or Samneric)
The macabre element in drama was introduced by: Lyly
“For gold in physique is cordial/therefore, he loved gold in special” relates to: Chaucer’s Doctor
Who derided Hazlitt as one of the members of the cockney school of poetry? Eliot
Graham Greene’s novels are marked by? Catholicism
In Pride And Prejudice, Lydia elopes with? Wickham
The work by Ruskin which began as a defence of contemporary landscape artist especially turner? The Modem Painters
The second series of Essays Of Elia by Charles Lamb was published in? 1833
‘gestalt’ theory of literature considers text as: A unified whole
‘bliss was it in that dawn to be alive, but to be young was very heaven’: Wordsworth’s “French Revolution”
“Hymn to Adversity” is a poem by Thomas Gray
The first Canadian poet is: Charles Heavysege
Heroic quatrain is: four line stanza in iambic pentameter
A book that faithfully renders a young man’s confused images of love and rejection is: A Portrait of Artist as a Young Man
Swift’s Modest Proposal is written in the form of a : project in political economy social satire
Anti-sentimental comedy is a criticism of: Excess of emotion
Tennyson’s poem about women and women’s sphere is: The Princess
Which inns of court did John Donne join in 1592? Lincolns Inn
Who was Donne’s chief patron 1610 onwards? Sir Robert Drury
Who said about Donne, he affects the metaphysics, not only in his satires, but in his amorous verses, where nature only should reign; and perplexes the minds of the fair sex with nice speculations of philosophy, when he should engage their hearts, and entertain them with the softnesses of love? John Dryden
The title of the poem “The Second Coming” is taken from? The German mythology
One important feature of Jane Austen’s style is? Humour And Pathos
Aristotle’s Criticism
♦️Aristotle’s Criticism♦️
Introduction
Aristotle is Plato’s disciple. He is also known as the tutor of Alexander the Great. He has written many critical treatises but only two, “Poetics” and “Rhetoric”, are remaining. “Poetics” deals with the art of poetry and “Rhetoric” deals with the art of speaking. “Poetics” is a short book for about 50 pages, containing 26 small chapters. The first four chapters and the 25th talk about poetry, the 5th is about comedy, epic and tragedy and the following 14 chapters to tragedy and the next three to poetic diction, the next two to epic and the last to a comparison of epic and tragedy.
His Observation of Poetry
Its Nature – Aristotle, like Plato, calls a poet an imitator. He compares a poet with a child, who imitates the elders, similarly a poet is a grown up child. It is not twice removed from reality; instead, it talks about the permanent truth. He compares poetry with history. History says what has happened, poetry is more philosophical and it says what may happen. Poetry is therefore higher than history.
Its Function – poetry’s major function is pleasure. It gives pleasure to the reader and the poet by its imitation and rhythm. If the poem teaches along with giving pleasure it is a superior poem.
Its Emotional Appeal – Poetry appeals more to emotions. Tragedy arouses the emotions of pity and fear – pity at the sufferings and fall of the hero and fear of the worst that he may face. These emotions end in purgation or catharsis. These emotions help the mind to calm down.
Observation on Tragedy
Its Origin – Poetry imitates two kinds of action: the noble and the bad. Noble or good action leads to epic and the bad action leads to satire. From these actions, arise tragedy and comedy. Epic and tragedy are superior to satire and comedy. Tragedy is more superior to epic.
Its Characteristics – Tragedy, according to Aristotle, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete,…in language embellished…in the form of action and not narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions. It should have a beginning, middle and an end. A plot should have reasonable length. It should neither be short nor be long. A tragedy must have rhythm, harmony and song. They must be employed as occasion demands. A tragedy must also have action, which distinguishes it from epic. In epic, a narrator tells the story and in tragedy, the tale is told by moving characters.
Its Constituent Parts – Tragedy has six parts: plot, character, thought, diction, song and spectacle. Plot is the arrangement of incidents. It is very important in a tragedy than characters. Without action, there would not be any characters. Characters determine men’s qualities. Thought is what a character thinks or feels during his career in the play. To accomplish all these, a writer uses diction and song. Spectacle is the stage mechanics that present the play for the audience.
Structure of the Plot – the plot is the soul of a tragedy. It must have three unities. Unity of action is the first unity. Actions in the life of the hero which are connected with one another and appear together. There may be more actions in every man’s life but a tragedy must give what is necessary. There should be only one plot or only one man’s life must be discussed. Unity of time comes next. A tragedy must take place within a single revolution of sun and epic does not have this limit. A tragedy, on stage, must happen within 24 hours, if not it may appear unnatural. Unity of place is the last unity. A tragedy must happen in a single place. A writer should not shift place quite often. A tragedy should arouse pity and fear and there must be purgation at the end. A tragedy should end in an unhappy way, so that we get the true tragic pleasure. A plot can be divided into two – complications and denouement. The complications are the events that form a knot and the denouement unties it. The complications include the beginning to the point where there is a turn for good or ill; the d
[24/09, 10:53 AM] Sk Sagor Ali Sir: enouement extends from the turning point to the end.
Simple and Complex Plot – In a simple plot there is no complications. In a complex plot there is peripeteia and anagnorsis. Peripeteia is reversal of situation and anagnorsis is recognition or discovery. Reversal of situation means reversal of intention – we do something and the opposite happens (killing and enemy and find him to be a friend). Anagnorsis is a change from ignorance to knowledge. A tragedy must not have a simple plot but it should have a complex plot.
Tragic Hero – a tragic hero must produce fear and pity among the audience. He cannot be a good man neither a bad man. He should be a man whose is not too good but with some errors or tragic flaw.
Observations on Comedy
Not much is said about comedy. Comedy has its roots in satire. Satire ridicules personalities and comedy ridicules general vices. By vices, Aristotle does not mean men with wickedness but with some defect or ugliness. This defect or ugliness provides laughter, which leads to no harm or pain. Comedy is more like poetry, which talks about what may happen.
Observations on Epic
Its Nature and Form – Epic originated earlier than tragedy and comedy. It is an outcome of hymns and songs sung in praise of gods. In its nature, it is more like tragedy but in form it is different. An epic should also a beginning, middle and an end. The structure of the plot is also the same, it must have a complication and denouement. It has the unity of action that should lead to catharsis. It has parts like tragedy – plot, character, thought and diction. It is different from tragedy because a poet narrates it. It could be lengthier than a tragedy. An epic could be grand and it could be episodic. An epic can be marvelous or improbable. It can have supernatural elements.
Epic and Tragedy – Aristotle considers tragedy as higher than epic. Epic is superior because it appeals to refined audience. It achieves its effects without the visual effect. But tragedy is more superior because it appeals to the cultivated audience by bringing in action.
Observations on Style
Aristotle talks about style in his “Rhetoric”. A good writing should have clearness and propriety. The aim of writing is to communicate so the writer must be clear. But as the meanings to be conveyed are different from time to time the mode of writing or propriety must be different. The writers must use current words to attain dignity and charm. He should also use archaic words, foreign words and newly coined words. He is free to use metaphors. A prose writer should avoid ambiguous punctuations and multiple clauses. There are two styles of prose writing – loose and periodic. Loose style is made up of series of sentences. In periodic style each sentence is a complete whole with a beginning, middle and an end. Loose style is formless and unintelligible. Periodic style has a form.
IMPORTANT CANADIAN WRITERS: PART-II
IMPORTANT CANADIAN WRITERS: PART-II
π Margaret Atwood (b. 1939)
π»Ottawa born Margaret Atwood has been showered with literary accolades from The Man Booker Prize for The Blind Assassin (2000), to the Governor General’s Award for both Circle Game (1966) and The Handmaid’s Tale (1986).
π»Although she is best known for her work as a novelist, she is also an active writer of poetry and short stories. The Edible Woman (1969) was her first published novel and one of her most significant works.
π»The story is a controversial depiction of a young engaged woman who begins to feel devoured by her future husband to the point where it destroys her ability to eat.
π»Described by the author as a protofeminist work, The Edible Woman anticipated the feminist preoccupations that shook the world in the coming years.
π Mordecai Richler (1931-2001)
π»The son of a Jewish scrap yard worker, Mordecai Richler spent his early life surrounded by the Jewish community of Montreal. The setting of his childhood would prove a popular subject matter for his writing, appearing in several of his novels.
π»Though he spent a large portion of his career in London he was eventually compelled to return to Montreal for the powerful effect it had had on his development.
π»In 1954 he married a French-Canadian divorcee nearly a decade older than himself, but met and fell in love with Florence Mann, a younger married woman on his wedding night. Richler and Mann eventually divorced their respective spouses and married each other.
π»This personal experience became the basis for one of author’s most famous novels, Barney’s Version (1997).
π»Richler was shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize in 1990 for Solomon Gursky Was Here (1989) which was awarded the Commonwealth Writers Prize that same year.
π Alice Munro (b. 1931)
π» Winner of the Man Booker International Prize for her lifetime body of work, three time recipient of the Governor General’s Award for fiction and a long time contender for the Nobel Prize, Alice Munro is an icon of Canadian literature.
π»An expert writer of short stories, Munro’s skill lies in her truthful examination of human relationships viewed against the mundane backdrop of ordinary life.
π»Her Well known works include Dance of the Happy Shades (1968) and The Progress of Love (1986). In 2013 Munro’s book of short stories Hateship, Friendship, Courtship, Loveship, Marriage (2002) was the inspiration for a motion picture directed by Liza Johnson.
π Yann Martel (b. 1963)
π»Although a Quebecian (with French as his first language Spanish born writer), Yann Martel chooses to write in English for the emotional distance it affords him when composing his prose.
A life spent in Alaska, British Columbia, Costa Rica, France,Ontario and Mexico and extensive travels to Iran, Turkey and India no doubt influenced the multicultural focus of his works.
π»Martel received little mention outside Canada until the release of his wildly popular Life of Pi (2001) the story of a young Tamil boy who survives 227 days on a lifeboat in the middle of the Pacific Ocean accompanied by a Bengal Tiger.
π»The book won Martel the Man Booker Prize, the Exclusive Books Boeke Prize and nominated him for the Governor General’s Literary Awards.
π Gabrielle Roy (1909-1983)
π»French Canadian author Gabrielle Roy secured her position as one of the most important figures of Canadian literature with the publishing of The Tin Flute in 1947.
π»As one of the few significant works of Canadian fiction to gain importance in both English and French, the book tells the story of the young pregnant Florentine, who struggles with poverty against the backdrop of pre-war Montreal.
π»The novel won both the Royal Society of Canada’s Lorne Peace Medal and the Governor General’s Award for Fiction. In 2004, the Bank of Canada printed a $20 banknote featuring a short passage from Roy’s 1961 book The Hidden Mountain.
IMPORTANT CANADIAN WRITERS: PART-I
π Michael Ondaatje (b. 1943)
π»Best known for his Booker Prize winning novel turned Academy Award winning film, The English Patient (1992).
π»Srilankan born writer, gained Canadian citizenship following his move to the country in 1962. His broad range of work, which covers the territories of fiction, autobiography, poetry and film, has found its way into school curricula across Canada.
π»Other notable works include In the Skin of a Lion (1987), a fictional account of immigrants which played a profound role in the construction of Toronto but were subsequently blown over in records of the time period, and The Collected Works of Billy the Kid (1970), a book of poetry speculating on various events in the life of William Bonney, otherwise known as Billy the Kid.
π Eden Robinson (b. 1968)
π»As a member of the Haisla and Heiltsuk First Nations, novelist and short story writer Eden Robinson demonstrates a consistent preoccupation with Haisla culture.
π»Her highly regarded literary debut, Trampoline (1995) is a bleak depiction of the upbringing of four adolescents growing up on Haisla Nation Kitamaat reserve. Divided into four parts, each section is dedicated to the perspective of one youth, as they navigate the shaky and often oppressive terrain of their own home.
π»Other books include Monkey Beach (2000) for which she received the Ethel Wilson Fiction Prize and was shortlisted for the Giller Prize and the Governor General’s Literary Award, and Blood Sports (2006) in which she revisits several themes and characters introduced in Trampoline.
π Joy Kogawa (b. 1953)
π»Vancouver born novelist and poet known for her imagined accounts of the internment of Japanese Canadians and her involvement in the Redress Movement to seek justice for her people.
π»Her critically acclaimed novel Obasan (1981) uses powerful prose to reveal the suffering and strife endured by Japanese Canadians during the Second World War. Written from the perspective of a middle aged woman by the name of Naomi Nakane, Kogawa expands upon the story in her 1992 novel Itsuka.
π»Obasan is listed as one of the 100 Most Important Canadian Books by the Literary Review of Canada.
π»Other works include The Rain Ascends (1995), in which a woman must face the reality that her father, an Anglican minister, is a pedophile, and her collection of poetry, Splintered Moon (1967).
π Joseph Boyden (b. 1966)
π»For his highly acclaimed first novel, Three Day Road (2005), Joseph Boyden borrows from his own family anecdotes to create the story of two young Cree men who work as snipers during the First World War.
π»The novel helped set the stage for Boyden’s subsequent work when it won the Amazon/Books in Canada First Novel Award and the Rogers Writers’ Trust Fiction Prize.
π»His next work, Through Black Spruce (2008), secured Boyden’s reputation as a must read Canadian author and it won the Scotiabank Giller Prize of the same year.
π»Boyden’s most recent book, The Orenda (2013), published in September, too received great praise from readers. The book revisits the events surrounding the Huron, Jesuits, and the Iroquois Indian wars which shaped the formation of the Canadian Nation.
π»A highly profound read, Boyden brings the history of his country to life through this work of exhilarating tragedy.
π Margare Laurence
(1926-1987)
π»A member of the Writers Trust of Canada, Margaret Laurence is known for her progressive feminist stance and fervent endorsement of peace.
π»Although the writer spent much of her adult life in England and Africa, her upbringing in rural Neepawa, Manitoba is apparent in many of her most important works.
π»One such example is her novel The Diviners, which is evidently inspired by the author’s own story. The central character Morag Gunn is born in Manitoba, works for a local newspaper, marries an accomplished man, lives for periods in Vancouver and Britain, divorces and then immerses herself in her writing. As her last major novel, the book won her the coveted Governor-General’s A
4 Main Types of Sonnets With Examples
What Are the Different Types of Sonnets?
4 Main Types of Sonnets With Examples
The word “sonnet” stems from the Italian word “sonetto,” which itself derives from “suono” (meaning “a sound”). There are 4 primary types of sonnets:
Petrarchan
Shakespearean
Spenserian
Miltonic
What Is a Petrarchan sonnet?
The Petrarchan Sonnet is named after the Italian poet Francesco Petrarch, a lyrical poet of fourteenth-century Italy. Petrarch did not invent the poetic form that bears his name. Rather, the commonly credited originator of the sonnet is Giacomo da Lentini, who composed poetry in the literary Sicilian dialect in the thirteenth century. They have 14 lines, divided into 2 subgroups: an octave and a sestet. The octave follows a rhyme scheme of ABBA ABBA. The sestet follows one of two rhyme schemes—either CDE CDE scheme (more common) or CDC CDC.
What Is a Shakespearean sonnet?
A Shakespearean sonnet is a variation on the Italian sonnet tradition. The form evolved in England during and around the time of the Elizabethan era. These sonnets are sometimes referred to as Elizabethan sonnets or English sonnets. They have 14 lines divided into 4 subgroups: 3 quatrains and a couplet. Each line is typically ten syllables, phrased in iambic pentameter. A Shakespearean sonnet employs the rhyme scheme ABAB CDCD EFEF GG.
What Is a Spenserian sonnet?
A Spenserian sonnet is a variation on the Shakespearean sonnet, with a more challenging rhyme scheme: ABAB BCBC CDCD EE.
What Is a Miltonic sonnet?
“Miltonic” sonnets are an evolution of the Shakespearean sonnet. They often examined an internal struggle or conflict rather than themes of the material world, and sometimes they would stretch beyond traditional limits on rhyme or length.
Shakespearean Sonnets vs. Petrarchan Sonnets
The primary difference between a Shakespearean sonnet and a Petrarchan sonnet is the way the poem’s 14 lines are grouped. Rather than employ quatrains, the Petrarchan sonnet combines an octave (eight lines) with a sestet (six lines).
These sections accordingly follow the following rhyme scheme:
ABBA ABBA CDE CDE.
Sometimes, the ending sestet follows a CDC CDC rhyme scheme. This is called the “Sicilian sestet,” named for an island region of Italy.
Meanwhile, the “Crybin” variant on the Petrarchan sonnet contains a different rhyme scheme for the opening octave:
ABBA CDDC.
The verses of Petrarchan sonnets often frame a particular the topic or argument of the sonnet, which is often presented as a question. The opening octave offers a “proposition” that poses the problem at hand. The concluding sestet then provides a resolution. The ninth line of the Petrarchan sonnet, found at the top of the sestet, is the “volta,” which literally translates to the “turn.”
Shakespearean Sonnets vs. Spenserian Sonnets
The English poet Edmund Spenser lived during the age of Shakespeare (in fact, he died earlier than The Bard) and provided his own variation on the popular sonnet form of the day.
Shakespeare and most of his contemporaries organized their 14-line sonnet sequence with the following rhyme scheme:
ABAB CDCD EFEF GG.
Spenser’s rhyme scheme is a bit more challenging:
ABAB BCBC CDCD EE.
This means that rhyming words introduced in one quatrain must inform rhymes in subsequent quatrains. To see how Spenser put this into practice, consider the opening of his sonnet, “Amoretti,” written in 1595:
Happy ye leaves. whenas those lily hands—A
Which hold my life in their dead doing might—B
Shall handle you, and hold in love's soft bands—A
Like captives trembling at the victor's sight—B
And happy lines on which, with starry light—B
Those lamping eyes will deign sometimes to look—C
And read the sorrows of my dying sprite—B
Written with tears in heart's close bleeding book.—C
Shakespearean Sonnets vs. Miltonic Sonnets
Shakespeare’s sonnet style traces fairly clearly to the original sonnets of Giacomo da Lentini. Shakespearean rhyme scheme differed from its Italian precedents, as indicated above. But the Bard of Avon most distinguished his style via his poems’ content and themes. Prior to Elizabethan age, the vast majority of sonnets concerned religion and worship. Shakespeare upended this tradition with poems that feature lust, homoeroticism, misogyny, infidelity, and acrimony. These topics have endured in poetry ever since, even if the rigid sonnet structure eventually fell out of fashion.
John Milton, who lived for the final eight years of Shakespeare’s lifetime, continued to push the sonnet form. “Miltonic” sonnets often examined an internal struggle or conflict rather than themes of the material world. Sometimes they would stretch beyond traditional limits on rhyme or length, but Milton also showed fondness for the Petrarchan form, including in his most famous sonnet, “When I Consider How My Light is Spent.”
Modern Critical THEORIES
Modern Critical THEORIES
1. Structuralism:
Structuralism was a literary theory which is based on "a system of ideas used in the study of language, literature, art, anthropology and sociology that emphasizes the importance of the basic structure and relationship of that particular subject. It is primarily concerned with understanding how language works as a system of meaning production. How does language function as a kind of meaning machine. It is a 20th century intellectual approach. Ferdinand desassure was the founder of structuralism. According to De Saussure, Every language has different signs and these signs are composite of Signifier and signified. These Signs give the meaning to the text. We cannot study Text in Isolation.He gave the concept of Langue and parole. Langue is the grammar rules, system and structure of the language.
Parole is the act of utterances.
2. Post structuralism::
It is a late 20th century approach in philosophy and literary criticism. It is opposition to the structuralism. Jacques derrida and Michael Foucault are the founder of post structuralism. It denies the existence of universal principles which create meanings and coherence. It rejects the theory of Ferdinand Desaussure of Signifier and Signified. It examines the other sources of meanings I.e reader, cultural norms and other literature etc. Here readers replace the author. It is simultaneously rejection of Structuralism. Here no meaning and sign are stable. There is nothing outside the text.
3. Russian Formalism:
Russian Formalism was developed in 1910 in Russia .its official beginning was marked by an establishment of two organization, the moscow linguistic circle and the society for the study of poetic language (OPOYAZ).
For formalists,literary criticism is separate from other forms of analysis.it focuses on how language works. Formalists study how literature works not what literature is about. They were primarily interested in the way the literary text achieve their effects and in establishing a scientific bases for study of literature. I can say that Formalism is a critical approach that analyse , interprete and evaluate the inherent features of a text. These Features include not only grammar and syntax but also literary devices such as meter and figure of speech.
In the first half of the 20th century , Russian and Czech literary theorists worked to develop a theory of literariness: what made literary text different from , for instance, govt reports, newspapers articles etc. Formalist says that literature distinguishes itself from non literary language because it employs a range of devices that have a defamiliarization effect. Here we can study text in isolation. There is nothing extra textual. The text is the most authentic itself. We pay utmost attention on the forms of the text. We focus on language and study linguistic devices in order to get maximum meaning of the text.
4. Reader Response Criticism:
Reader response criticism analyzes the reader's role in the production of the meaning. the text itself has no meanings until it is read by a reader. Here reader is a producer rather than a consumer of meanings.
It is a school of criticism which emerged in 1970,focused on finding meaning in the act of reading itself and examining the ways individual readers or community of readers experience texts.
Reader-response criticism is a school of literary theory that focuses on the reader and their experience of a literary work, in contrast to other schools and theories that focus attention primarily on the author or the content and form of the work. It argues that a text has no meaning before a reader experiences and—reads—it.
Practitioners: I-A-Richards, Louise Rosenblatt ,Walter Gibson ,Norman Holland .
5. Psychoanalytical Criticism:
Sigmund Freud developed the psychoanalytic theory of personality development, which argued that personality is formed through conflicts among three fundamental structures of the human mind: the id, ego, and superego.
This theory works on the psychology. It adopts the methods of reading employed
by Freud and later theorists to interpret texts,like dreams, express the secret unconscious desires and anxieties of the author ,that a leterary work is a manifestation of the author's own neuroses. Psychoanalysis attempts to understand the workings and source of unconscious desires, needs, anxieties and behaviour of writers,readers and specific cultural phenomena. They want to understand human behavioural patterns and cultural behaviour patterns. Through the scope of a psychoanalytic lens, humans are described as having sexual and aggressive drives. Psychoanalytic theorists believe that human behavior is deterministic. It is governed by irrational forces, and the unconscious, as well as instinctual and biological drives. Due to this deterministic nature, psychoanalytic theorists do not believe in free will.Practitioner:Sigmund Freud ,Ernest Jones .
6. Deconstruction:
Deconstruction is a philosophical critical approach to textual analysis that is m0st closely related with the work of Jacques Derrida. He gives the concept of binary opposition. The deconstructive method is used to show that the meaning of a literary text is not fixed or stable. Jacques derrida says that all communication is characterized by uncertainity because there is no definitive link between a signifier(a word)and signified(object). once a text is written it ceases to have a meaning until a reader reads it. There is no solid meaning to the text. There is no possibility of absolute truth.
I can Say Deconstruction is an approach to understanding the relationship between text and meaning. Derrida's approach consisted of conducting readings of texts with an ear to what runs counter to the intended meaning or structural unity of a particular text.
7. Feminism:
The concept of feminism in general has been concerned to an analysis of the trend of male domination of the society ; the general attitude of male towards female, the ways of improving the condition of women. In literature, It emerged in 1960. It was the movement in favour of women.
''Jane Austin ,Francis Burney ,Virginia Woolf, George Eliot " were the famous Feminist writers. Feminism is a belief that women should have equal rights to men.
First wave: kate millet was concerned mainly to the treatment of women at the hands of male.
Marry ellman's:thinking about women.
Kate millet:sexual politics. feminine(1840-80) in which women wrote in an effort to equal the intellectual achievements of the male culture and internalized its assumptions about female nature.the distinguishing sign of this period is the male pseudonym.women chose male pseudonyms as a way of coping with a double literary standard.
2nd phase:feminist(1880-1920)in which women protest male values,advocate separatist 'sisterhoods'.they used literature to dramatize the ordeals of wronged womanhood.
It shows the direct analysis of women to literature.female writers and their significanc was studied. It is Also called gynocriticism.
Elaine showalter:a literature of their own(1920).
3rd wave:female (1920) in which women create 'female writing' in self-discovery.
8.New historicism:
New Historicism is a literary theory based on the idea that literature should be studied and interpret within the context of both the history of the author and the history of the critic. It is based on literary criticism of stwephan Greenblatt and influenced by the philosophy of michwael Foucault , new historicism acknowledges not only that a work of literature is influenced by its author's times and circumstances but that the critic's response to that work is also influenced by his environment,beliefs and prejudice. It examines both how the writer's times affected the work and how the work reflects the writer's times.
New historicists don't just want to appreciate literature through history,they want to know history better through literature.
New Historicism is a form of literary theory whose goal is to understand intellectual history through literature, and literature through its cultural context, which follows the 1950s field of history of ideas .
9.Post colonialism:
Post Colonialism is the critical analysis of history, culture, literature and modes of discourse, specific to the former colonies of engwland, Spain ,France and other European colonial powers. It focuses on third world countries of Africa ,Asia ,Australia and New Zealand . Post colonial literatures are a result of the interaction between imperial culture and the complex of indigenous cultural practices. It is also used to analyse the texts and other cultural discourses that emerged after the end of the colonial period.
It rejects the master-narrative of western imperialism.
It concerns with the formation of the colonial and post colonial subject.
Post-colonialism is simply a lens through which we study literature that is set in colonized countries or deals with post-colonial issues.
Edward Said, Homi k Bhabbha, Chinua Achebe and Joseph Conrad are the Few post colonial writers.
10. Modernism:
Modernism is a period in literary history which started around the early 1900s and continued until the early 1940s. Emily Dickinson and Walt Whitman are thought to be the mother and father of the movement. According to M.H.Abrams; The term modernism is widely used to identify new and distinative features in the subjects, forms, concepts and style of literature and other art in the early decades of the present century.
T.S.Eliot is considered as one of the most important modernist poet. His two prominent poems where eliot shows his modern orientations are The love song of J.alfred Prufrock and The Waste Land.
Modernism is the rejection of traditional 19th century norms and earlier contentions and represented by orientation towards fragmentation, free verse, allusions and victorian and romantic writing..
11. Post modernism:
A late 20th century style and concept in the arts, architecture and criticism which represents a departure from modernism and is characterized by the self-conscious use of earlier styles and conventions, a mixing of different artistic styles and media ,and a general distrust of theories. Postmodern literature is literature characterized by reliance on narrative techniques such as fragmentation, paradox, and the unreliable narrator; and is often defined as a style or a trend which emerged in the post–World War II era.
Jean Boudrillard, Jacques Derrida, Michael Foucault, Richard Rorty, Fredrick Jameson are the few famous post-modernists.
Literary Terms - Propaganda
LiteraryTerms - Propaganda
Term ‘lifted’ from the title Congregatio de propaganda fide (now the APF – Association for the Propagation of the Faith), a committee of the Roman Church responsible for foreign missions and the dissemination of the faith. It was set up in 1622. When literature is propaganda and when it is not is a much debated issue.
If an author sets out to make a case for a particular religious, social or political point of view, through the medium of a play or a novel, for example, and he is seen to be doing this, and perhaps in the process he sacrifices verisimilitude by contriving character and situation to suit his thesis, then it might be said that the result is a work of propaganda. If what he has to say is worth reading or listening to long after the issue which provoked the propaganda is dead, then his art has transcended the contingent needs of the
propagandist.
Basically propaganda is devoted to the spreading of a particular idea or belief. Much pamphlet literature and journalism has precisely this
purpose. It is partial. Pamphleteering in the 18th c., for instance, was openly propagandist. Later, notable polemicists like H. G. Wells, Bernard Shaw,
Hilaire Belloc and G. K. Chesterton wrote a lot of propaganda to support and promulgate their political, social and religious beliefs. Though proselyt-
izing is forbidden to the layman, Belloc and Chesterton came very near it at times. Ibsen might fairly be described as propagandist in some of his plays;
so might Galsworthy. And Brecht certainly was. There have also been a number of plays presented to spread the doctrines of Moral Re-Armament.
Many writers in the Communist bloc have been overtly propagandist in aid of socialism, in novels, as well as in plays and verse.
CAPSULE FACTS: UTOPIA
CAPSULE FACTS: UTOPIA
π Thomas More’s Utopia, published in 1516, is a powerful and original study of social conditions, unlike anything which had ever appeared in any literature.
π He learns from a sailor, one of Amerigo Vespucci’s companions, of a wonderful Kingdom of Nowhere, in which all questions of labor, government, society, and religion have been easily settled by simple justice and common sense.
π In Utopia, we find for the first time as the foundations of civilized society, the three great words: Liberty, Fraternity, Equality, which retained their inspiration through all the violence of the French Revolution and which are still the unrealized ideal of every free government.
π As he hears of this wonderful country, Thomas More wonders why after fifteen centuries of Christianity, his own land is so 'uncivilized'.
π Thomas More’s Utopia describes the travels of one man, Raphael Hythloday, to an undiscovered island that he considers to be the best country on earth.
π In Book 1, Thomas More (not only the author, but also a main character) arrives in Antwerp on a business trip where he runs into an old friend, Peter Giles and meets a new friend, Raphael Hythloday.
π Hythloday is a great traveller and has all sorts of controversial opinions, so the three of them head over to Giles’s garden to have an intense chat about whether or not it’s possible for philosophy to influence politics.
π Giles and More say, it is possible for philosophy to influence politics, whereas Hythloday insists that politics and philosophy are irreconcilable. He ends by just randomly mentioning this place called Utopia.
SOME CAPSULE POINTS TO REMEMBER
SOME CAPSULE POINTS TO REMEMBER
π West-Running Brook is a collection of poetry by Robert Frost, written in 1923 and published by Henry Holt and Co. in 1928. Due to of this volume, Robert Frost is also known as "Home Spun Philosopher".
π Cultural materialism is an anthropological research orientation first introduced by Marvin Harris in his 1968 book The Rise of Anthropological Theory, as a theoretical paradigm and research strategy. To him, social change is dependent of three factors: a society's infrastructure, structure and superstructure.
π Mrs Dalloway (1925) centres on the efforts of Clarissa Dalloway, a middle-aged society woman who organises a party, even as her life is paralleled with that of Septimus Warren Smith, a working-class veteran who has returned from the First World War bearing deep psychological scars.
π The Voyage Out by Virginia Woolf, was published in 1915, by her half-brother's imprint, Gerald Duckworth and Company Ltd. which was the novel originally titled Melymbrosia; but Woolf repeatedly changed the draft. An earlier version of The Voyage Out has been reconstructed by Louise DeSalvo and is now available to the public under the intended title. DeSalvo argues that many of the changes Woolf made in the text were in response to changes in her own life.
π Luigi Pirandello was an Italian dramatist, novelist, poet, and short story writer whose greatest contributions were his plays. He was awarded the 1934 Nobel Prize in Literature for "his almost magical power to turn psychological analysis into good theatre." Pirandello's works include: novels, short stories, and about forty plays, some of which were written in Sicilian. Pirandello's tragic farces are often seen as forerunners of the Theatre of the Absurd.
THEORIES WITH Authors
THEORIES WITH Authors
1. Aestheticism –
often associated with Romanticism, a philosophy defining aesthetic value as the primary goal in understanding literature. This includes both literary critics who have tried to understand and/or identify aesthetic values and those like Oscar Wilde who have stressed art for art's sake.
I.Oscar Wilde,
II.Walter Pater,
III.Harold Bloom
2. American pragmatism and other American approaches
I.Harold Bloom,
II.Stanley Fish,
III.Richard Rorty
3. Cognitive Cultural Studies –
applies research in cognitive neuroscience, cognitive evolutionary psychology and anthropology, and philosophy of mind to the study of literature and culture
I.Frederick Luis Aldama,
II.Mary Thomas Crane,
III.Nancy Easterlin,
IV.William Flesch,
V.David Herman,
VI.Suzanne Keen,
VII.Patrick Colm Hogan,
VIIIAlan Richardson,
IX.Ellen Spolsky,
X.Blakey Vermeule,
XI.Lisa Zunshine
4. Cultural studies –
emphasizes the role of literature in everyday life
I.Raymond Williams,
II.Dick Hebdige, and Stuart Hall (British Cultural Studies);
III.Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno;
IV.Michel de Certeau; also Paul Gilroy, John Guillory
5. Deconstruction –
a strategy of "close" reading that elicits the ways that key terms and concepts may be paradoxical or self-undermining, rendering their meaning undecidable
I.Jacques Derrida,
II.Paul de Man,
III.J. Hillis Miller,
IV.Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe,
V.Gayatri Spivak,
VI.Avital Ronell
6. Eco-criticism –
explores cultural connections and human relationships to the natural world.
7. Gender –
which emphasizes themes of gender relations
I.Luce Irigaray,
II.Judith Butler,
III.Hélène Cixous,
IV.Elaine Showalter
8. Formalism –
a school of literary criticism and literary theory having mainly to do with structural purposes of a particular text
8. German hermeneutics and philology
I.Friedrich Schleiermacher,
II.Wilhelm Dilthey,
III.Hans-Georg Gadamer,
IV.Erich Auerbach,
V.RenΓ© Wellek
9. Marxism (Marxist literary criticism) –
which emphasizes themes of class conflict
I.Georg LukΓ‘cs,
II.Valentin Voloshinov,
III.Raymond Williams,
IV.Terry Eagleton,
V.Fredric Jameson,
VI.Theodor Adorno,
VII.Walter Benjamin
10.New Criticism –
looks at literary works on the basis of what is written, and not at the goals of the author or biographical issues
I.W. K. Wimsatt,
II.F. R. Leavis,
III.John Crowe Ransom,
IV.Cleanth Brooks,
V.Robert Penn Warren
11.New Historicism –
which examines the work through its historical context and seeks to understand cultural and intellectual history through literature
I.Stephen Greenblatt,
II.Louis Montrose,
III.Jonathan Goldberg,
IV.H. Aram Veeser
12. Postcolonialism –
focuses on the influences of colonialism in literature, especially regarding the historical conflict resulting from the exploitation of less developed countries and indigenous peoples by Western nations
I.Edward Said,
II.Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak,
III.Homi Bhabha and Declan Kiberd
13. Postmodernism –
criticism of the conditions present in the twentieth century, often with concern for those viewed as social deviants or the Other
I.Michel Foucault,
II.Roland Barthes,
III.Gilles Deleuze,
IV.FΓ©lix Guattari
V. Maurice Blanchot
14. Post-struc
turalism –
a catch-all term for various theoretical approaches (such as deconstruction) that criticize or go beyond Structuralism's aspirations to create a rational science of culture by extrapolating the model of linguistics to other discursive and aesthetic formations
I.Roland Barthes,
II.Michel Foucault,
III.Julia Kristeva
15. Psychoanalysis (psychoanalytic literary criticism) – explores the role of consciousnesses and the unconscious in literature including that of the author, reader, and characters in the text
I. Sigmund Freud,
II.Jacques Lacan,
III.Harold Bloom,
IV.Slavoj Ε½iΕΎek,
V.Viktor Tausk
16. Queer theory –
examines, questions, and criticizes the role of gender identity and sexuality in literature
I.Judith Butler,
II.Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick,
III.Michel Foucault
17. Reader-response criticism –
focuses upon the active response of the reader to a text
I.Louise Rosenblatt,
II.Wolfgang Iser,
III.Norman Holland,
IV.Hans-Robert Jauss,
V.Stuart Hall
18. Russian formalism
I.Victor Shklovsky,
II.Vladimir Propp
19.Structuralism and semiotics (see semiotic literary criticism) –
examines the universal underlying structures in a text, the linguistic units in a text and how the author conveys meaning through any structures
I.Ferdinand de Saussure,
II.Roman Jakobson,
III.Claude LΓ©vi-Strauss,
IV.Roland Barthes,
V.Mikhail Bakhtin,
VI.Yurii Lotman,
VII.Umberto Eco,
VIII.Jacques Ehrmann,
IX.Northrop FFry
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Authors, Literary works & Important Characters
William Shakespeare:
King Lear (Play) King Lear; Goneril; Regan; Cordelia
Hamlet (Play) Hamlet; Ophelia; Claudius; Gertrude
Othello (Play) Othello; Desdemona
Macbeth (Play) Macbeth; Lady Macbeth; Duncan; Banquo; Three Witches
Twelfth Night(Play) Viola; Duke Orsino; Malvolio; Olivia; Sebastian
Measure for Measure (Play) Isabella; Juliet; Lucio; Angelo; Claudio
The Tempest (Play) Prospero; Miranda; Ferdinand; Caliban; Ariel
Merchant of Venice (Play) Shylock; Portia; Antonio; Bassanio; Jessica
John Milton:
Paradise Lost (Epic) Adam; Eve; Satan; Raphael; Michael.
Jane Austen:
Pride and Prejudice (Novel)
Mr. Darcy; Elizabeth Bennet; Jane Bennet; Charles Bingley;
Mr. William Collins; Kitty Bennet; Lydia Bennet.
Charlotte Bronte:
Jane Eyre (Novel)
Jane Eyre; Edward Rochester; Georgiana; Reed; Bertha Mason.
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English Literature MCQ (Early -1550)
• Goethe defined literature “the humanization of the whole world”
• In 450 coming of Saxons to England
• Bede wrote Ecclesiastical History of the English People in 731
• Weimer Classicism is a cultural and literary movement, the movement from 1772 until 1805 involved John Wolfgang von Goethe as German literary writer.
• His first novel was The Sorrow of Young Werther
• Anglo-Saxon literature ranges from 7th to 11th
• Anglo-Saxons were people who in habitated from Germanic Tribes. Anglo-Saxon periods denote the early settlement of British history until the Norman conquest, between about 450 and 1066.
• Norman were from Scandinavia
• Norman defeat the Anglo Saxon King in the battle of Hastings in 1066
• Normans brought with them Chornicles
• Anglo Saxon Poetry has been derived from Church
• The main result of the victory of Normans over French as they lost their civilization
• William , the duke of Normandy became the master of England beating the last of the Saxon Kings
• The main outcome of the battle of the Hastings in 1066 was that it changed the civilization of whole nation
• Chanson National Epic is also known as “Chanson de Roland”
• Complete history of Britons was written by Geoffrey of Monmouth, who was a Welsh Monk
• Battle of Hastings , Death of Edward and William of Normandy becomes the king in 1066
• Advocate’s Library gives a complete picture of Normandy Literature
• Merri Greenwood Men ballads were later collected into Geste of Robin Hood
• Seven Wise Masters is a collection of French oriental tales
• The Matter of Greece , is related to tales of Alexander
• Alisoun is the melodious love song written at the end of 13th century
• Rule of Achoresses
LIST OF NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS IN ENGLISH LITERATURE
LIST OF NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS IN ENGLISH LITERATURE
π1. Rudyard Kipling - 1907
π2. William Butler Yeats - 1923
π3. George Bernard Shaw - 1925
π4. Sinclair Lewis - 1930
π5. John Galsworthy - 1932
π6. Eugene O'Neill - 1936
π7. Pearl S. Buck - 1938
π8. T.S. Eliot - 1948
π9. William Faulkner - 1949
π10. Bertrand Russell - 1950
π11. Sir Winston Churchill - 1953
π12. Ernest Hemingway - 1954
π13. John Steinbeck - 1962
π14. Samuel Beckett - 1969
π15. Patrick White - 1973
π16. Saul Bellow - 1976
π17. William Golding - 1983
π18. Akinwande Oluwole Soyinka -1986
π19. Joseph Brodsky - 1987
π20. Nadine Gordimer - 1991
π21. Derek Walcott - 1992
π22 Toni Morrison - 1993
π23. Seamus Heaney - 1995
π24. Vidiadhar Surajprasad Naipaul - 2001
π25. John Maxwell Coetzee - 2003
π26. Harold Pinter - 2005
π27. Doris Lessing - 2007
π28. Alice Munro - 2013
Key Terms in Post Colonial Theory
Key Terms in Post Colonial Theory
You should read over the following definitions in order to understand some of the basic ideas associated with post-colonialist literature:
#COLONIALISM : The imperialist expansion of Europe into the rest of the world during the last four hundred years in which a dominant imperium or center carried on a relationship of control and influence over its margins or colonies. This relationship tended to extend to social, pedagogical, economic, political, and broadly culturally exchanges often with a hierarchical European settler class and local, educated (compractor) elite class forming layers between the European "mother" nation and the various indigenous peoples who were controlled. Such a system carried within it inherent notions of racial inferiority and exotic otherness.
#POSTS_COLONIALISM : Broadly a study of the effects of colonialism on cultures and societies. It is concerned with both how European nations conquered and controlled "Third World" cultures and how these groups have since responded to and resisted those encroachments. Post-colonialism, as both a body of theory and a study of political and cultural change, has gone and continues to go through three broad stages:
an initial awareness of the social, psychological, and cultural inferiority enforced by being in a colonized state
the struggle for ethnic, cultural, and political autonomy
a growing awareness of cultural overlap and hybridity
ambivalence: the ambiguous way in which colonizer and colonized regard one another. The colonizer often regards the colonized as both inferior yet exotically other, while the colonized regards the colonizer as both enviable yet corrupt. In a context of hybridity, this often produces a mixed sense of blessing and curse.
#ALTERITY : "the state of being other or different"; the political, cultural, linguistic, or religious other. The study of the ways in which one group makes themselves different from others.
COLONIAL EDUCATION: the process by which a colonizing power assimilates either a subaltern native elite or a larger population to its way of thinking and seeing the world.
#DIASPORA: the voluntary or enforced migration of peoples from their native homelands. Diaspora literature is often concerned with questions of maintaining or altering identity, language, and culture while in another culture or country.
#ESSENTIALISM : the essence or "whatness" of something. In the context of race, ethnicity, or culture, essentialism suggests the practice of various groups deciding what is and isn't a particular identity. As a practice, essentialism tends to overlook differences within groups often to maintain the status quo or obtain power. Essentialist claims can be used by a colonizing power but also by the colonized as a way of resisting what is claimed about them.
#ETHNICITY: a fusion of traits that belong to a group–shared values, beliefs, norms, tastes, behaviors, experiences, memories, and loyalties. Often deeply related to a person’s identity.
#EXOTICISM: the process by which a cultural practice is made stimulating and exciting in its difference from the colonializer’s normal perspective. Ironically, as European groups educated local, indigenous cultures, schoolchildren often began to see their native lifeways, plants, and animals as exotic and the European counterparts as "normal" or "typical."
#HEGEMONY: the power of the ruling class to convince other classes that their interests are the interests of all, often not only through means of economic and political control but more subtly through the control of education and media.
#HYBRIDITY: new transcultural forms that arise from cross-cultural exchange. Hybridity can be social, political, linguistic, religious, etc. It is not necessarily a peaceful mixture, for it can be contentious and disruptive in its experience. Note the two related definitions:
CATALYSIS: the (specifically New World) experience of several ethnic groups interacting and mixing with each other often in a contentious environment that gives way to new forms of identity a
The Graveyard poets
The Graveyard poets
•The "Graveyard Poets", also termed "Churchyard Poets", were a number of pre-Romantic English poets of the 18th century #characterised by their #gloomy_meditations on #mortality, "skulls and coffins, epitaphs and worms" elicited by the presence of the #graveyard.
•"Graveyard" poetry increasingly expressed a feeling for the "sublime" and uncanny, and an antiquarian interest in ancient English poetic forms and folk poetry.
•The "graveyard poets" are often recognized as #precursors of the #Gothic_literary_genre, as well as the #Romantic_movement.
•At its narrowest, the term "Graveyard School" refers to four poems: Thomas Gray's #Elegy_Written_in_a_Country_Churchyard, Thomas Parnell's "Night-Piece On #Death", Robert Blair's #The_Grave , and Edward Young's #Night-Thoughts
•The term itself was not used as a brand for the poets and their poetry until #William_Macneile_Dixon did so in 1898.
•The earliest poem attributed to the Graveyard School was #Thomas_Parnell's #A_Night-Piece on Death (1721), in which King Death himself gives an address from his kingdom of bones:
"When men my scythe and darts supply
How great a King of Fears am I!"
•Characteristic later poems include #Edward_Young's Night-Thoughts (1742), in which a lonely traveller in a graveyard reflects lugubriously on:
The vale funereal, the sad cypress gloom;
The land of apparitions, empty shades!
•Blair's #The_Grave (1743) proves to be no more cheerful as it relates with grim relish how:
Wild shrieks have issued from the hollow tombs;
Dead men have come again, and walked about;
And the great bell has tolled, unrung and untouched.
•However, a more contemplative mood is achieved in the celebrated opening verse of Gray's Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard (1751)
The curfew tolls the knell of parting day.
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea,
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way,
And leaves the world to darkness and to me.
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